Sliding Filament Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Sliding Filament Theory - Essay Example Surrounding the whole muscle is a layer of connective tissue, epimysium that encloses the individual fascicules together. The individual muscle fibers are made up of filamentous bundles that run along the length of the fiber. Most of the interior of the fibre consists of the protein filaments which constitute the contractile apparatus, grouped together in bundles called myofibrils. Each myofibril consists of a repeating unit, known as a sarcomere. The alignment of the sarcomeres between adjacent muscle fibers is responsible for the characteristic striations in the striated skeletal muscle fibers. The sarcomere is the fundamental contractile unit of the skeletal muscles. When a muscle fiber is viewed by polarized light, the sarcomeres are seen as alternating dark and light zones. Some regions appear dark because they refract the polarized light. This property is called anisotropy, and the corresponding band is known as an A band. The light regions do not refract polarized light and ar e called isotropic and are denoted as I bands. Each I band is divided by a characteristic line known as a Z line, and the unit between successive Z lines is the sarcomere [1]. Under electron microscopic examination with high magnification, the A bands are seen to be composed of thick filaments arranged in a regular order. The I bands consist of thin filaments. When the muscle is in the resting state, that is, when there is no shortening of the fibers due to contraction, a pale area can be seen in the center of the A band. This is known as the H zone, and it corresponds to the region where the thick and thin filaments do not overlap, which otherwise is the case throughout the muscle fiber architecture. In the center of each H zone, there is a line called M line. It is in this line, links are formed between adjacent thick filaments. The principal protein of the A bands is myosin, while that of I bands is actin. The interaction between these proteins is fundamental to the contractile process in the skeletal muscle at the ultrastructural and molecular levels. There are two types of actin filaments. One is globular in shape, known as globular or G actin subuni ts, and the other is filamentous of F actin. The actin filaments of the I band are made by joining many G actin subunits together by polymerization to form F actin. The F actin, in turn, is stabilized by binding to the Z line. The thick filaments are made up of an assembly of myosin molecules together. Each myosin molecule consists of two heavy chains. Each of these heavy chains has two light chains associated with a head region that is globular. The junction between the head region and the long tail contains a hinge. This hinge allows the myosin to generate the force required for muscle contraction. The tail regions of the myosin molecules associate together to form the thick filaments. Each thick filament consists of several hundred myosin molecules [2]. The sliding filament theory explains muscle contraction, and the structure of skeletal muscle provides important clues to the mechanism of contraction. The width of the A bands or thick filament areas in striated muscle remains constant, regardless of the length of the entire muscle fiber, while the width of the I bands or the thin-filament areas varies

Treatment for Digoxin Overdose

Treatment for Digoxin Overdose B. Trimble Digoxin Overdose Digoxin is derived from the leaves of a digitalis plant (foxglove). Some plants have chemicals that can cause symptoms similar to digoxin if eaten, such as lily of the valley and oleander. Digoxin is a substrate of P-glycoprotein. Drugs that induce or inhibit P-glycoprotein in the intestines or the kidneys have the potential to alter digoxin pharmacokinetics (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Digoxin increases the strength of heart contractions by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme ATPase. ATPase controls the movement of calcium, sodium, and potassium into the heart muscle. ATPase increases the amount of calcium in heart muscle, which increases the force of contractions. Digoxin slows the electrical conduction between the atrium and ventricles of the heart and slows ventricular contractions. Digoxin is eliminated through the kidneys and should be reduced in dosage in patients with kidney dysfunction (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Medications such as verapamil, quinidine, Amiodarone, indomethacin, spironolactone, Alprazolam and itraconazole can increase drug levels and the risk of toxicity of digoxin. Furosemide and other diuretics that reduce blood potassium or magnesium levels may predispose patients to drug induced abnormal heart rhythms. Saquinvard and ritonavir increase the amount of digoxin in the body and may cause toxicity (PubMed, 2013). Assessment of the severity of toxicity and etiology (accidental, unintentional, or deliberate overdose) altered drug metabolism due to decreased renal function or interaction with other drugs is necessary. Consideration of factors that influence treatment include age, medical history, chronicity of digoxin intoxication, severity of heart disease, and/or renal insufficiency and ECG changes (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Symptoms of digoxin toxicity include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, visual changes, cardiac arrhythmias (1st degree, 2nd degree â€Å"Wenckebach†, or 3rd degree heart block), atrial tachycardia with AV block, AV dissociation, accelerated junctional, unifocal or multifocal premature ventricular contractions, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation (Patel, 2011). Toxicity is usually associated with levels greater than 2 mg/ml. Low body weight, advanced age, impaired renal function, hyperkalemia, hyper-calcemia, or hypo-magnesium may cause d igoxin toxicity. Other symptoms may include decreased consciousness, decreased urine output, difficulty breathing, and overall swelling (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Treatment will consist of emergency protocol if outside the hospital; this includes calling emergency medical services and CPR. Once the patient is in medical care, the treatment will depend upon the severity of symptoms and levels of digoxin in the body. Laboratory testing will include serum electrolytes, digoxin levels, and thyroid function tests. The patient will be placed on continuous cardiac monitoring with a 12 lead ECG obtained (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). The primary focus is to correct electrolyte levels; if hypokalemic administer potassium to reach a level of 4.0 to 5.5 mmol/L. Activated charcoal will be administered either orally or per nasogastric tube in order to bind undigested digoxin. If bradycardic and symptomatic, atropine may be given intravenously. Peak cardiac effects of digoxin occur 3 to 6 hours after ingestion. Gastrointestinal symptoms precede cardiac manifestation. Neurological symptoms like fatigue and malaise are common. Visual disturbances occur with aberration in color vision, mostly yellow-green. Activated charcoal binds to the digoxin and prevents recirculation to the enterohepatic circulation. Cholestyramine may be used for chronic toxicity in patients with renal insufficiency. Continuous hemodynamic monitoring includes the ECG and 12 lead EKG (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Prompt measurement of electrolyte levels (potassium, calcium, digoxin, BUN, creatinine, and CMP). Sodium bicarbonate may be administered to correct metabolic acidosis along with glucose and insulin to enhance potassium uptake by the cells (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Magnesium may serve as a temporary antiarrthymic until digifab is available. Hypomagnesium increases myocardial digoxin uptake and decreases cellular sodium/potassium ATPase activity. Digibind (digifab or digoxin immune Fab) is an immunoglobulin fragment that binds with digoxin. In acute intentional overdose digibind (40 mg reconstituted with 4 ml sterile water) is administ ered 4 to 6 vials as a loading dose over 30 minutes as an emergent IV bolus. The bolus is followed by 0.5 mg/minute for 8 hours and then 0.1 mg/ minute for 6 hours (Patel, 2011). For patients with chronic toxicity that are dependent on digoxin, the initial dose is twice the bolus. This avoids complete reversal of clinical effects of digoxin. Response is typically within 20 to 30 minutes after infusion, elimination half- life is around 16 hours. Digoxin levels are unreliable for one to two weeks after therapy. Complications in long-term digoxin users, who receive digibind treatment administration are that it may precipitate worsening of heart failure as reversing the beneficial inotropic agent of digoxin causes hypokalemia and atrial arrhythmias with rapid ventricular response (Katzung, Mastes, Trevor, 2012). Hypokalemia has occurred in patients treated with standard therapy as well as with Fab fragments. Clinically adverse phenomena have occurs in patients with immunotherapy. Other untoward effects of Fab include anaphylaxis and serum sickness, this is because it is a sheep protein, but this is uncommon. Recrudescence of digoxin toxicity is possible within 7 to 14 days because Fab is eliminated more rapidly than digoxin released from tissue binary sites. Plasmapheresis may be performed or the agent reinstituted in such cases (Patel, 2011). If hemodynamically stable, bradycardia and supraventricular arrhythmias may be treated with observation and supportive measures. Ensuring hydration to optimize renal clearance, administering gastrointestinal binding agents may be used. For patients with rate related ischemia or neurological unstable digiFab is the treatment of choice (PubMed, 2013). In unstable premature ventricular contractions, lidocaine may be effective. In ventricular tachycardia the best response is to digiFab, but phenytoin and lidocaine are useful if Fab is ineffective or unavailable (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). They depress the enhanced ventricular automaticity without significant slowing of AV conduction. Phenytoin may reverse digoxin induced prolongation of AV nodal conduction. Phenytoin has been shown to dissociate the inotropic and dysrhythmia actions of digoxin, suppressing digoxin tachycardia without diminishing the contractile affect and can terminate SVT induced by digoxin. Doses for lidocaine are 100 mg bolus with an infusion of 1 to 4 mg/minute. Phenytoin dosage is 100 mg every 5 to 10 minutes up to a loading dose of 15 mg/kg. Magnesium sulfate dosage is 2 gram over 5 minutes followed by an infusion of 1 to 2 g/hour, with magnesium levels drawn every one to two hours. Atropine may be given for bradycardia to improve sinus and AV node conduction by inhibiting vagal activity (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Phenytoin may reverse digoxin induced prolongation of the action potential in myocardial cells and may suspend tachycardia, prolongs effective refractory period, and depresses spontaneous depolarization in ventricular tissue. Lidocaine is a class IB antiarrthymic that increases the electrical stimulation threshold of the ventricles, suppressing the automaticity of conduction through the tissue. It combines with sodium channels and inhibits recovery after repolarization, resulting in decreased myocardial excitability and conduction velocity (Brunton, Chabner, Knol lman, 2011). Magnesium sulfate possesses properties that slow the rate of sinoatrial node impulse formation and prolong conduction times (Brunton, Chabner, Knollman, 2011). Prevention of unintentional overdose (accidental overdose, interaction with other medications, or the altered metabolism due to renal insufficiency) is mostly through patient education. Instructing the patient in the correct dosage of the medication; that blood tests will be necessary to ensure appropriate dosage; suggesting daily recording of heart rate and blood pressure. Advise the patient that many drugs interact with digoxin, and to inform the physician and pharmacist of all medications, including over the counter and herbal medications, and if started on a new prescription. Advising the patient to report any sign/symptoms associated with digoxin toxicity. Review signs and symptoms of toxicity with the patient. If the overdose were intentional, the patient would need the same consults as any other patient undergoing treatment (cardiologist, nephrologist, medical toxicologist, regional poison control center) as well as psychiatric consult. Follow up appointments with the patient to monitor drug and electrolyte levels. Reference Brunton, L., Chabner, B., Knollman, B. (2011). Goodman Gilmans:The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Katzung, B., Mastes, S., Trevor, A. (2012). Basic Clinical Pharmacology (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill. Patel, V. (2011). Digitalis toxicity. Retrieved from Medscape: http://www.emedicine.medscape.com/article/154336-overview PubMed. (2013, Janurary). Digitalis toxicity. Retrieved from PubMed.gov: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001218

Essay example --

When the 20th century came around America faced many challenges such as immigration, urbanization, and industrialization. To respond to these challenges the populist ask for more government intervention to fix these problems. Imagine your favorite team losing by three touchdowns going into the 4th quarter. The only way to get back into the game is by throwing the ball. By throwing the ball more makes you try to score quicker and get back in the game faster. Government was becoming more progressive domestically and internationally. Progressivism was the reform movement that ran from the late 19th century through the first decades of the 20th century. During the movement leading intellectuals and social reformers addressed the economic and political questions that had arisen. These rapid changes brought with the Industrial Revolution and the growth of modern capitalism in America. U.S. government became increasingly activists in both domestic and foreign policy. Progressives sought to extend their vision of a just and rational order to all areas of society and some, indeed, to all reaches of the globe. For example, Upton Sinclair’s graphic description of the meatpacking industry in his novel The Jungle so deeply disgusted the American people. In response, Congress passed legislation that same year, hoping to clean up the industry and protect American consumers. All this influence of more government intervention started during the Reconstruction Era. This Era was one of the most turbulent eras in American history. It witnessed America's first experiment in mass democracy. Reconstruction remains relevant today because the issues central to it the role of the federal government in protecting citizens' rights. This entailed a dramati... ...cturing economy, propelling America's rise to become the leading power in the world. Business and industrialization centered on the cities. The building of factories and a need for labor convinced people in rural areas to move to the city. This shifted America’s demographics dramatically. The United States transformed from an agrarian to an urban nation. In response to the challenges of the 20th century, America needed a progressive movement that was directed at solving the problems created by the Rapid industrialization. It was a time of enormous changes in American life. The movement help fuel the United States become an international power and help secure its economic strength. It brought about laws aimed at relieving these problems and improving society. Even though it resulted in increased government regulation, the regulation was needed to modernize America.

Deutche Bank

9-205-059 REV: APRIL 26, 2005 GEORGE CHACKO PETER HECHT VINCENT DESSAIN ANDERS SJOMAN Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades It was the third week of August 2003, and Jamil Baz, head of Deutsche Bank’s Fixed Income Research Group, gathered his research group for a morning meeting. â€Å"So, what are the markets telling us today? † he asked the group. â€Å"Are there any trends or news for new trade ideas? † The Fixed Income Research Group that Baz led was Deutsche Bank’s internal research and development (R&D) department for fixed income instruments.Their mandate was to look for untapped value across bond markets and interest rate derivatives. Long-term-oriented research findings were presented to clients, whereas immediate opportunities were suggested as trades to internal traders as well as clients. The success of the group was in part measured by how many of their trade suggestions actually turned into successful trades. So far, they had achieved an impressive 75% success rate. A natural place to start looking for new trades was the latest prices on various U.S. Treasury bonds (see Exhibit 1 for data from August 15, 2003). The group’s members consistently went through that data set, looking for possible trades to recommend. Typically relative-value trades took both long and short positions across different parts of the yield curve. Baz’s standard weekly question just emphasized what they all knew: that it was time to scour through the numbers one more time to see if any such positions were available. The Deutsche Bank Fixed Income Research GroupHeadquartered in Deutsche Bank’s London office, the company’s Fixed Income Research Group consisted of about 50 analysts and strategists. (An additional 10 were located in the bank’s New York offices. ) Global head of Fixed Income Research and in charge of the group was Baz, a managing director with Deutsche Bank since 2001. Previously at Lehman Brot hers in London, Baz also held an M. S. in management from MIT and a Ph. D. in business economics from Harvard University. As a part of a large financial institution, the research group was under constant pressure to monetize the ideas that they generated.The group presented its findings both internally to the ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Professors George Chacko and Peter Hecht, Executive Director of the HBS Europe Research Center Vincent Dessain, and Research Associate Anders Sjoman prepared this case. This case deals with trade-specific advice activities of a research department and draws heavily from â€Å"Deutsche Bank: Discussing the Equity Risk Premium,â€Å" HBS Case No. 205-040, by the same authors. Case No. 205-040 deals with macro-level advice from the same research department.Some names and data have been disguised for confidentiality. HBS cases are developed solely as the basis for clas s discussion. Cases are not intended to serve as endorsements, sources of primary data, or illustrations of effective or ineffective management. This case is not intended as financial advice, and it should not be used as the basis for any investment decision, in whole or in part. Copyright  © 2004 President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, call 1-800-545-7685, write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163, or go to http://www. bsp. harvard. edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of Harvard Business School. 205-059 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades Deutsche Bank traders, as well as externally to Deutsche Bank clients at the CEO, CFO, and Treasury level. Baz explained how the ideas were pitched: The final goal is to create a franchise with fixed income clients.So, for clients on the asset side, such as mutual funds, hedge funds, insurance companies, and pension plans, we help them generate high returns on their assets. We give specific ideas to be executed by the clients—hopefully with us, although that is never certain. However, even if we don’t get a trade out of our recommendation, it is important enough that we maintain Deutsche Bank’s presence at the client. Sometimes we also do bespoke—or customized—work, where we analyze their balance sheet and asset-liability mismatches for them, almost like technical financial consulting.In general, research alone will not give us clients, but research combined with pricing are the keys to building long-lasting relationships with external clients. Overall, we strive to push the frontiers of analytical finance when it comes to modeling interest rates, volatilities, and spreads. Owing to data avail ability and an intimate exposure to institutional market realities, we are often pushed to reach results ahead of academic finance journals. On a group level, Deutsche Bank organized its fixed income activities in the global markets around three main pillars: investor coverage, issuer coverage, and research.The trading desks dealing in these areas were in turn divided into two groups: credit (with credit trading/credit derivatives, new issue syndicate, asset securitization, and emerging markets) and rates (with foreign exchange, money markets, fixed income, and interest rate derivatives). The research efforts of the group were set up to match these organizational divisions. The Fixed Income Research Group was one of several research groups (as shown in Exhibit 2). All these groups were run under the banner of Global Markets Research.Research as a whole was headed by David Folkerts-Landau. Demand for direct meetings with Deutsche Bank’s research groups had grown over the past few years, taken internally as a sign of increased respect for the bank’s research output. In the last year, Baz’s group alone had logged over 1,500 client meetings. All clients had access to the Deutsche Bank research in papers and newsletters that were available online. Internal traders also benefited from the research, which was a major influence behind much of the bank’s proprietary—or â€Å"prop†Ã¢â‚¬â€trading.Most members of the research group shared their time between external clients and traders, with more senior staff members working more with external clients and less with the trading floor. In the end, measuring the research group’s value to the organization was still difficult. Said Baz: Putting a value on the work we do, and the effect we have on the bank, is very hard. In fact, if you were to really measure it by attributing sales and trades back to us, the trading floor would be more reluctant to work with us. Instead, we are mostly evaluated by top management on three other factors.Firstly, overall market direction, which is how much of rate and spread moves did we catch in our advice. Secondly, the relative-value trades we originated. Thirdly, any customized business we have brought in from our client meetings. Compensation to the members of the group was tied to the evaluation of the group as a whole. Individual bonuses were then given at the discretion of Baz as the group’s manager, based on his qualitative impression of each member’s contribution. 2 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades 205-059 Strategic Advice and Relative-Value ActivitiesThe group’s activities were normally broken down into strategic advice on macro trends and relative value. The strategic advice activities built on long-term discussions with clients, where the group presented Deutsche Bank’s view on macroeconomic trends to external clients. In these discussions, George Cooper, the group’ s global fixed income strategist, typically did not expect a quick monetary return. Cooper, a Ph. D. graduate in engineering at Durham University with experience from both Goldman Sachs and JP Morgan, explained: This type of activity does not generate a lot of money from a trade perspective.It generates brand value, though, and is especially appealing to insurance companies or asset-liability people, who appreciate the long-term view. We believe it serves more of an educational purpose. It gets the fund managers thinking. They are not looking for prescriptive research, where we tell them to â€Å"do this trade,† but they look for interesting ideas. Of course, they then weigh our ideas against whatever Goldman Sachs or Morgan Stanley are saying. Our role is to come up with hopefully insightful but also informative new ways to look at things.By contrast, the relative-value activities looked for more immediate opportunities by comparing different instruments and then recommendin g various trading strategies to clients and internal traders. Head of Relative Value Research for Europe was Jean Dumas, an engineer from ESME SUDRIA in France with a specialization in finance, who had worked with Relative Value Research for Deutsche Bank in Paris, Frankfurt, and Sydney before moving to London. Dumas explained his work: We come up with different types of trades all the time.The trade opportunities may be there for a week or two, sometimes longer. I look at different spreadsheets, listen to what traders are saying, watch the news, study different models. . . . Then I try to put everything together—and suddenly there is a trade opportunity. Our job is really grabbing things that don’t seem to be related at first and see if there is a trade to be done. The trade opportunities that the research group identified were published weekly in the newsletter â€Å"Deutsche Bank Fixed Income Weekly,† which was distributed to Deutsche Bank traders as well as to clients.A frequent contributor to the newsletter was Dr. Nikan B. Firoozye, head of Global Quantitative Strategies and a Ph. D. graduate in mathematics from Courant Institute at New York University with experience from Alliance Capital, Sanford C. Bernstein, and Lehman Brothers. Firoozye explained: I write a piece on Euroland strategy every week where we suggest trades. Some of these are big trades that we don’t change very often, such as curve-steepening trades. We can have the same trade off and on for a full year. We also summarize economic data as it impacts the bond markets.For instance, how structured trades could be influenced by the move in dollar versus yen, and how you should position for that. In his role as head of Euroland Strategy, Firoozye also oversaw all strategic investments in Euroland bond markets. He was also involved in all modeling issues and wrote stand-alone papers on quantitative strategy. Looking for a Relative-Value Trade For the research group, one way to find relative-value trades was to compare the prices of traded securities against the prices that the group thought the securities should trade at. This subjective view 205-059 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades was based on a proprietary model developed at Deutsche Bank. (Most banks used proprietary models as a base from which to evaluate the prices of traded securities. ) The models were built on the fact that the returns offered by fixed income instruments could be characterized by the yields that they offered. The yield was roughly seen as compensation for the risk borne by the holder of that security. There were many sources of risk in fixed income securities, such as interest rate risk, credit risk, and prepayment risk.Also, the yield of an instrument could be broken down into components. The components could be thought of as compensation for the different sources of risk. So, for example, the yield on a corporate bond could be thought of as being compose d of a risk-free yield plus a credit spread. The risk-free yield represented compensation for interest rate risk in the bond, while the credit spread represented compensation for default risk in the bond. 1 To understand the compensation for the interest rate risk alone, banks typically constructed â€Å"yield-curve models. These were models for the yields on zero-coupon Treasury securities, since Treasury instruments typically contained only interest rate risk. Models for the yield curve could be then used to compare the current and expected prices of U. S. Treasury instruments. 2 The research group at Deutsche Bank had developed their own proprietary yield-curve model, a so-called three-factor affine model (see Exhibit 3 for a conceptual description of the model). Firoozye explained the fundaments of the model: We have three factors driving the yield curve that we see as analogous to the economy.In an economy, there is inflation, output gaps, and short rates. So first among our f actors is a long rate, which is analogous to inflation. It is the slowest mean reverting of our three factors. In the fifties inflation was low, in the seventies it was extremely high, and now it is back down again. It takes 20 years to go through its cycle. It is very slow, very persistent, whereas the business cycle is much, much faster. You go through a business cycle in about seven years. So slope, our second factor, is then the measure of output gap. Slope mean reverts much more quickly than inflation.The third factor is the short rate, which mean reverts the fastest. After estimating the variables of the three-factor model, the team calibrated the model to price the one-month, two-year, and 10-year zero-coupon bond. After Baz’s request at the weekly meeting, the analysts now used the latest numbers on various U. S. Treasury bonds to update and calibrate the model (see Exhibit 4 for the resulting output from Deutsche Bank’s model). The idea was to then compare the actual zero-coupon yield curve against the predicted ones coming out of the model and see if any trade ideas presented themselves.In fact, several trades seemed to come out of that comparison. Baz and the team now had to pick the trades with the highest profit potential. 1 It should be noted that the notion of compensation here is approximate. The yield on a zero-coupon corporate bond is not the expected return of that bond. It is simply the promised return of that bond, or the return an investor would get if the bond did not default. Starting with this promised return and then factoring in the probability of default and a default risk premium leads to the expected return for that bond. More generally, yield-curve models could be used to price any interest rate-sensitive security. For example, the pricing of interest rate options starts with a yield-curve model. 4 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades 205-059 Exhibit 1 Prices and Coupon Rates of Various U. S. Treasury Bonds on August 15, 2003 Coupon Rate (%) 3 2. 125 1. 5 6. 5 5. 625 2. 375 6. 25 3. 25 3 3. 25 5. 5 6 6. 5 5. 75 5 5 4. 875 4. 375 3. 875 4. 25 13. 25 12. 5 11. 25 10. 625 9. 25 7. 5 8. 75 8. 875 9. 125 9 8. 875 8. 125 8. 5 8. 75 7. 875 8. 25 8 7. 25 7. 125 6. 25 7. 5 7. 5 7. 625 6. 875 6 6. 75 6. 625 6. 375 6. 125 5. 5 5. 25 6. 125 Maturity Date 2/15/2004 8/15/2004 2/15/2005 8/15/2005 2/15/2006 8/15/2006 2/15/2007 8/15/2007 2/15/2008 8/15/2008 2/15/2009 8/15/2009 2/15/2010 8/15/2010 2/15/2011 8/15/2011 2/15/2012 8/15/2012 2/15/2013 8/15/2013 2/15/2014 8/15/2014 2/15/2015 8/15/2015 2/15/2016 8/15/2016 2/15/2017 8/15/2017 2/15/2018 8/15/2018 2/15/2019 8/15/2019 2/15/2020 8/15/2020 2/15/2021 8/15/2021 2/15/2022 8/15/2022 2/15/2023 8/15/2023 2/15/2024 8/15/2024 2/15/2025 /15/2025 2/15/2026 8/15/2026 2/15/2027 8/15/2027 2/15/2028 8/15/2028 2/15/2029 8/15/2029 Current Price 101. 0544 100. 9254 99. 8942 109. 0934 108. 438 99. 7848 111. 7184 101. 0841 99. 1692 99. 271 109. 7707 112. 145 114. 9084 110. 3894 105. 2934 104. 7607 103. 4391 99. 2806 95. 0288 97. 7693 174. 3251 168. 9389 157. 0552 152. 4222 140. 0135 123. 3044 136. 0598 137. 504 140. 792 139. 9079 138. 7431 130. 7162 135. 2938 138. 3466 128. 4995 131. 7341 130. 4736 121. 58 120. 1744 109. 4538 125. 46 125. 4466 127. 1477 117. 5509 106. 3626 116. 1986 114. 7086 111. 036 108. 0391 99. 633 96. 2876 108. 4062 Source: Adapted by casewriter from Datastream. 5 205-059 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades Exhibit 2 Deutsche Bank Global Markets Research Organization Global Head COO and Co-Head Global Economics Global Strategist Foreign Exchange Securitization Index Development Regional Heads – Asia/ Pacific – Germany Strategy – Fixed Income/ Relative Value Research – Emerging Markets – Credit Credit (High Grade Credit Research) Economics – Global – US – Europe – Emerging Markets Source: Deutsche Bank. Exhibit 3 †¢ †¢ †¢Deutsche Bank†™s Zero-Coupon Yield Model Key variables: Short rate, slope, and long rate (or short rate, output gap, and inflation) Model specified by a system of equations (in Q measure) Long rate mean reverts slowly (possibly to nonzero mean) dX t= (  µ X ? k X X t) dt + ? X dWt X †¢ Slope mean reverts faster (to zero) dYt = ? kY Yt dt + ? Y dWt Y †¢ X t + Yt ? rt = 0 †¢ In equilibrium short rate, rt, follows the target Xt+Yt (an analogue of the Taylor rule) Short rate mean reverts fast in order to restore the equilibrium drt = k r ( X t + Yt ? rt ) dt + ? r dWt rSource: Adapted by casewriter from â€Å"Quantitative Models for Fixed Income,† Deutsche Bank presentation, October 2003. 6 Deutsche Bank: Finding Relative-Value Trades 205-059 Exhibit 4 Output from Deutsche Bank’s Zero-Coupon Yield Model Model Prediction (BEY) 1. 2443% 1. 8727% 2. 4110% 2. 9665% 3. 4454% 3. 8557% 4. 1996% 4. 4677% 4. 6528% 4. 7107% 5. 7160% 5. 9517% 5. 9315% Maturity (years) 1y 2y 3y 4 y 5y 6y 7y 8y 9y 10y 15y 20y 25y Source: Note: Adapted by casewriters from Deutsche Bank information. The yields in this table are bond equivalent yields (BEY), that is, the semiannual yield multiplied by two. 7

Cultural Relativism

|Cultural Moral Relativism. Do We All Agree? | |Essay #1 Pratheep | |Sivabaalan 100266114 | |11/18/2009 | |James Connelly | I find Rachel’s arguments against the view of Cultural Moral Relativism persuasive and very convincing. Believers of Cultural Relativism have influenced the notion that cultural moral codes are culture bound. After explicating and assessing Cultural Relativism views and Rachels arguments, it is clear that there are discrepancies and inconsistencies in the views that favor Cultural Relativism. Rachels introduces a number of considerations that reject Cultural Relativism. Cultural Relativism tells us that there is no such thing as universal truth in ethics, and what does exist is the customs of different societies. Furthermore, we cannot judge a custom of another society or our own as right or wrong. Cultural Relativism simplifies its facts by employing an argument, known as the ‘Cultural Differences’ argument. ) Different cultures have different moral codes 2) Therefore, there is no objective â€Å"truth† in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture (Rachels, p18) Rachels identifies that argument as being unsound, thus an invalid argument altogether. Rachels explains that the conclusion does not follow the premise. Rachels explains that the argument’s premise concerns what people believe, and the conclusion concerns what really is the case. I agree with Rachels reasoning on the argument, the premise is motivated by observations, and not the facts and the conclusion suggests what is true. Therefore, the argument cannot be considered as a strong view for cultural relativism since the conclusion does not logically follow the premise; an unsound argument. Rachels attempts to provide stronger claims to reject Cultural Relativism through a method known as reduction ad absurbum. One of the main points that Cultural Relativism stresses is that â€Å"We can no longer say that customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own†. Rachels disagrees with this notion in contrast with less compassionate practices in other societies. Rachels brings up examples, such as the oppression of the Chinese Government upon its citizens. Cultural Relativism denies us to condemn such actions because we cannot judge practices in another society to our own. I believe Rachel has a good point on how far is too far, when it comes to customs in other societies. Situations and practices like excursion, slavery, stoning and etc raises questions on how tolerate can people be on inhuman practices. Another proposition that Cultural Relativism brings up is that â€Å"We could no longer criticize the code of our own society†. Rachel criticizes this statement by suggesting that people do not believe our society’s code is perfect, but Cultural Relativism disallows us to think of ways why our society can be better. I agree that our society’s moral code is not prefect and there are a number of reasons that suggests this. For example, animal testing and killings of specific dog breeds are questionable in our society’s moral codes. Furthermore, in our society we have different views on the topic of abortion, where people feel it is right and wrong. Like many societies and our own, we are prone to question our own moral codes and customs. Lastly, â€Å"The idea of moral progress would be called into doubt†, is the last statement Cultural Relativism conveys. The statement contradicts many of Cultural Relativism views it expressed. Rachels example of women rights can be seen as progress, yet it also means that the old ways, before the movement, are now being replace by new and improved ways. Cultural Relativism does view women rights changes as progress; however it forbids us from thinking that this is making our society better. Thus, cultural relativism views on progress makes this argument contradictory. The five tenets of Cultural Relativism undergo further explication as Rachel notes further criticism. The first claim, â€Å"different societies have different moral codes†, holds some truth, however fails to explain that there are universal values that all societies do share. Values such as truth telling, prohibition of murder and caring for the young are conceived by all societies. The only difference is the factual beliefs, not their values. I agree with Rachel, that there are some values that cultures do share. The second tenet, â€Å"The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at within that society†. Rachel assesses and explains that there is a vast difference in what a society believes and what is really true. Practices, like excision, can be very wrong and suggests does it really promote or hinder human well being. I believe it hinders a human well being, excision is a painful procedure that abolishes sexual pleasure for the individual. Scarring and tendencies to contract disease(s) are most probable in the long run. Cultural relativism believes that society’s morals of a culture can never be wrong. However, Rachels believes that we can see that societies are in need of moral improvement. I agree with Rachels statements, there is room for societies to understand and learn that mistakes can be made even in cultural customs. The third tenet, â€Å"There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code as better than another’s. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times†. Rachels strongly disagrees with this tenet in cases of stoning, slavery and excision. Rachels says, â€Å"it always matters whether a practice promotes or hinder the welfare of the people affected by it†(Rachels, p28). People affected by such barbaric practices do not seem to improve the quality of their lives nor their happiness. The forth tenet, â€Å"The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many†. Rachels points out that Cultural Relativism says, â€Å"it is merely one among many†(Rachels, p28) which directs an ‘open question’. A code in particular can be one of the best or one of the worse. This opens up an entirely new discussion that there are customs that are questioned to being right or wrong. The fifth tenet, â€Å"It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerate of them†. Rachels raises truth in this statement, we are often arrogant when we criticize other cultures, and tolerance is a good thing. Nevertheless, Rachels notes, we shouldn’t tolerate everything, human societies have done horrible things. Tolerance can only go so far, to a point where intervention is crucial. This claim is inconsistent with the second claim, ‘that right and wrong are determined by the norms of a society’. There are instants that norms of a society favor intolerance, for example the Nazi army invading Poland. Cultural Relativism teaches us not to criticize the Nazis for being intolerant if all they’re doing is following their own moral codes. However, cultural relativism also tells us that the norms of a culture are bound within the culture itself. Since the norms are bound in Polish society, invasion and manslaughter are not part of their norms. Work Cited: Rachels, James and Stuart Rachels. (2009). The Elements of Moral Philosophy. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Ocean Sunfish Facts

Ocean Sunfish Facts The ocean sunfish (Mola mola) is certainly one of the more unusual-appearing fish in the oceans. This bony fish, also known as the common mola, is famous for its enormous bulk, striking appearance, high fertility, and free moving lifestyle. Fast Facts: Ocean Sunfish Scientific Name: Mola molaCommon Name(s): Ocean sunfish, common mola, common sunfishBasic Animal Group: FishSize: 6–10 feetWeight: 2,000 poundsLifespan: 22–23 yearsDiet:  CarnivoreHabitat: Pacific, Indian, Atlantic oceans, Mediterranean and North SeasPopulation: UnknownConservation Status: Vulnerable Description The ocean sunfish is a bony fish- it has a skeleton of bone, which distinguishes it from cartilaginous fish, whose skeletons are made of cartilage. The fish doesnt have a normal-looking tail; instead, it has a lumpy appendage called a clavus, which evolved through the fusion of the fishs dorsal and anal fin rays. Despite its lack of a powerful tail, the ocean sunfish is an active and graceful swimmer, using its dorsal and anal fins to perform rapid changes in direction and horizontal movements independent of the prevailing current. It can also leap out of the water. Ocean sunfish vary in color from brown to gray to white. Some even have spots. On average, ocean sunfish weighs about 2,000 pounds and range between 6 and 10 feet across, making them the largest  bony fish  species. Female sunfish are larger than the males- all sunfish larger than 8 feet long are females. The largest ocean sunfish ever measured was nearly 11 feet across  and weighed over 5,000 pounds.   Rodrigo Friscione/Getty Images Species The word mola in its scientific name is Latin for millstone- a large  round stone used to grind grain- and the fishs name is a reference to its disc-like shape. Ocean sunfish are often referred to as common molas or simply molas. The ocean sunfish is also known as the common sunfish, as there are three other species of sunfish that live in the ocean- the slender mola (Ranzania laevis), the sharp-tailed mola (Masturus lanceolatus), and the southern ocean sunfish (Mola alexandrini). The sunfish group gets its name for the fishs characteristic behavior of lying on its side at the sea surface, seemingly basking in the sun. Habitat and Range Ocean sunfish live in tropical and temperate waters, and they can be found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans as well as inlets such as the Mediterranean and North seas. They generally stay within 60–125 miles of the coastline, and they apparently migrate within their ranges. They spend the summers at higher latitudes and their winters relatively closer to the equator; their ranges typically are along about 300 miles of coastline, although one sunfish off the coast of California was mapped at traveling over 400 miles. They move during the day horizontally at rate of about 16 miles a day. They also move vertically through the day, traveling between the surface and up to 2,600 feet below, moving up and down the water column during the day and night to chase food and regulate body heat. To see an ocean sunfish, though, youll likely have to find one in the wild, because they are difficult to keep in captivity. The Monterey Bay Aquarium is the only aquarium in the U.S. to have live ocean sunfish, and the fish  are kept at only a few other aquaria, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium in Portugal and the Kaiyukan Aquarium in Japan. Diet and Behavior Ocean sunfish like to eat jellyfish and siphonophores (relatives of jellyfish); in fact, they are among the most abundant of the worlds jellyfish eaters. They also eat salps, small fish, plankton, algae, mollusks, and  brittle stars. If youre lucky enough to see an ocean sunfish in the wild, it may look like its dead. Thats because ocean sunfish are often seen lying on their sides near the ocean surface, sometimes flapping their dorsal fins. There are a few theories about why sunfish do this; they often undertake long, deep dives in cold water in search of their favorite prey,  and may use the warm sun at the surface to re-heat themselves and aid digestion. The fish may also use the warm, oxygen-rich surface water to recharge their oxygen stores. And they may visit the surface to attract seabirds from above or cleaner fish from below to clean their skin of parasites. Some sources suggest that the fish wave their fins to attract birds. From 2005 to 2008, scientists tagged 31 ocean sunfish in the North Atlantic in the first study of its kind. The tagged sunfish spent more time near the ocean surface during the night than during the day, and they spent more time in the deep when they were in warmer waters such as  the  Gulf Stream  and the  Gulf of Mexico. BarrettMacKay BarrettMacKay/Getty Images   Reproduction and Offspring Ocean sunfish in Japanese waters spawn in late summer through October and likely multiple times. Age at sexual maturity is inferred at 5–7 years of age, and they spawn an enormous number of eggs. An ocean sunfish was once found with an estimated 300 million eggs in her ovary- more than scientists have ever found in any  vertebrate  species. Although sunfish produce many eggs, the eggs are tiny and essentially scattered into the water, making their chances of survival relatively small. Once an egg is fertilized, the embryo grows into tiny spiked larvae with a tail. After hatching, the spikes and tail disappear and the baby sunfish resembles a small adult. The lifespan of an ocean sunfish is up to 23 years. Conservation Status The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed the ocean sunfish as Vulnerable. Currently, sunfish are not targeted for human consumption, but they are endangered by bycatch. Reported estimates in California are that 14 percent to 61 percent of the fish caught by people seeking swordfish is sunfish; in South Africa, they make up 29 to 79 percent of the catch intended for horse mackerel, and in the Mediterranean, an astounding 70 to 95 percent of the total catch for swordfish is, in fact, ocean sunfish. The global population of sunfish is difficult to determine, since they spend so much time in deep water, although tagging has become more common. Sunfish may be a crucial part of the planets changing ecosystem under climate change: They are among the worlds most abundant eaters of jellyfish, and global warming appears to be resulting in an upsurge of jellyfish numbers. The biggest natural predators of ocean sunfish are  orcas  and  sea lions. Ocean Sunfish and Humans Despite their enormous size, ocean sunfish are harmless to humans. They move slowly and are likely more frightened of us than we are of them. Because they are not considered a good food fish in most places, their biggest threats are likely being hit by boats and being caught as bycatch in fishing gear.   Franco Banfi/Getty Images Sources Dewar, H., et al. Satellite Tracking the Worlds Largest Jelly Predator, the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Western Pacific. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 393.1 (2010): 32–42. Print.Liu, J., et al. Mola mola (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: e.T190422A97667070, 2015.  Potter, Inga F., and W. Huntting Howell. Vertical Movement and Behavior of the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Northwest Atlantic. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 396.2 (2011): 138–46. Print.Sims, David W., et al. Satellite Tracking of the Worlds Largest Bony Fish, the Ocean Sunfish (Mola Mola L.) in the North East Atlantic. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 370.1 (2009): 127–33. Print.Thys, Tierney M., et al. Ecology of the Ocean Sunfish, Mola Mola, in the Southern California Current System. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 471 (2015): 64–76. Print.

Drug Addition essays

Drug Addition essays Historically, alcohol and drug dependency was viewed as a sin or a disease. In recent decades, it has been thought to be a maladaptive behavior patterns (Thombs, 1999). I believe that its a combination of three things: A disease in which people learn to act in immoral ways (Thombs, 1999). A drug is any chemical agent that affects biological function (Thombs, 1999). Some act in the brain, others in organs, and some in several parts of the body at the same time. A psychotropic drug is one that acts in the brain to alter mood, thought process, or behavior. Addictive drugs are defined by the fact that they are self-administered, without medical prescription: repeatedly, compulsively, and even self-destructively (Cohen 1989). Drugs have been classified into seven different families and each affects a different part of the brain. In the past, drug addiction was viewed as a morally reprehensive behavior that addicts could control if only they made the effort. Today, it is argued that drug a ddictions are in many ways like infectious diseases; some people are infected, but not everyone (camh.net). There are differing degrees of immunity. Susceptibility depends typically on a complex set of genetic and environmental factors, ethnicity, degree of crowding lack of sanitation, and primarily new users transmit the behavior to their peers. Millions of Americans have been trapped by a vicious, biologic phenomenon called addiction. No sane person ever started out intending to become an addict, yet millions of our neighbors are either addicted to chemicals today or may have spent years trying to free themselves from this insidious cycle. Addiction is neither bad nor good. Addiction is a complex disease that involves both biology and behavior (Goldstein 1992). This high-low trap involves the relationship between stimulation and sedation (Cohen 1989). Stimulants and sedatives t ...